In this tutorial, we build a safety-critical reinforcement learning pipeline that learns entirely from fixed, offline data rather than live exploration. We design a custom environment, generate a behavior dataset from a constrained policy, and then train both a Behavior Cloning baseline and a Conservative Q-Learning agent using d3rlpy. By structuring the workflow around offline datasets, careful evaluation, and conservative learning objectives, we demonstrate how robust decision-making policies can be trained in settings where unsafe exploration is not an option. Check out the FULL CODES here.
import os
import time
import random
import inspect
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import gymnasium as gym
from gymnasium import spaces
import torch
import d3rlpy
SEED = 42
random.seed(SEED)
np.random.seed(SEED)
torch.manual_seed(SEED)
def pick_device():
if torch.cuda.is_available():
return “cuda:0”
return “cpu”
DEVICE = pick_device()
print(“d3rlpy:”, getattr(d3rlpy, “__version__”, “unknown”), “| torch:”, torch.__version__, “| device:”, DEVICE)
def make_config(cls, **kwargs):
sig = inspect.signature(cls.__init__)
allowed = set(sig.parameters.keys())
allowed.discard(“self”)
filtered = {k: v for k, v in kwargs.items() if k in allowed}
return cls(**filtered)
We set up the environment by installing dependencies, importing libraries, and fixing random seeds for reproducibility. We detect and configure the computation device to ensure consistent execution across systems. We also define a utility to create configuration objects safely across different d3rlpy versions. Check out the FULL CODES here.
metadata = {“render_modes”: []}
def __init__(
self,
size=15,
max_steps=80,
hazard_coords=None,
start=(0, 0),
goal=None,
slip_prob=0.05,
seed=0,
):
super().__init__()
self.size = int(size)
self.max_steps = int(max_steps)
self.start = tuple(start)
self.goal = tuple(goal) if goal is not None else (self.size – 1, self.size – 1)
self.slip_prob = float(slip_prob)
if hazard_coords is None:
hz = set()
rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
for _ in range(max(1, self.size // 2)):
x = rng.integers(2, self.size – 2)
y = rng.integers(2, self.size – 2)
hz.add((int(x), int(y)))
self.hazards = hz
else:
self.hazards = set(tuple(x) for x in hazard_coords)
self.action_space = spaces.Discrete(4)
self.observation_space = spaces.Box(low=0.0, high=float(self.size – 1), shape=(2,), dtype=np.float32)
self._rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
self._pos = None
self._t = 0
def reset(self, *, seed=None, options=None):
if seed is not None:
self._rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
self._pos = [int(self.start[0]), int(self.start[1])]
self._t = 0
obs = np.array(self._pos, dtype=np.float32)
return obs, {}
def _clip(self):
self._pos[0] = int(np.clip(self._pos[0], 0, self.size – 1))
self._pos[1] = int(np.clip(self._pos[1], 0, self.size – 1))
def step(self, action):
self._t += 1
a = int(action)
if self._rng.random() < self.slip_prob:
a = int(self._rng.integers(0, 4))
if a == 0:
self._pos[1] += 1
elif a == 1:
self._pos[0] += 1
elif a == 2:
self._pos[1] -= 1
elif a == 3:
self._pos[0] -= 1
self._clip()
x, y = int(self._pos[0]), int(self._pos[1])
terminated = False
truncated = self._t >= self.max_steps
reward = -1.0
if (x, y) in self.hazards:
reward = -100.0
terminated = True
if (x, y) == self.goal:
reward = +50.0
terminated = True
obs = np.array([x, y], dtype=np.float32)
return obs, float(reward), terminated, truncated, {}
We define a safety-critical GridWorld environment with hazards, terminal states, and stochastic transitions. We encode penalties for unsafe states and rewards for successful task completion. We ensure the environment strictly controls dynamics to reflect real-world safety constraints. Check out the FULL CODES here.
x, y = int(obs[0]), int(obs[1])
gx, gy = env.goal
preferred = []
if gx > x:
preferred.append(1)
elif gx < x:
preferred.append(3)
if gy > y:
preferred.append(0)
elif gy < y:
preferred.append(2)
if len(preferred) == 0:
preferred = [int(env._rng.integers(0, 4))]
if env._rng.random() < epsilon:
return int(env._rng.integers(0, 4))
candidates = []
for a in preferred:
nx, ny = x, y
if a == 0:
ny += 1
elif a == 1:
nx += 1
elif a == 2:
ny -= 1
elif a == 3:
nx -= 1
nx = int(np.clip(nx, 0, env.size – 1))
ny = int(np.clip(ny, 0, env.size – 1))
if (nx, ny) not in env.hazards:
candidates.append(a)
if len(candidates) == 0:
return preferred[0]
return int(random.choice(candidates))
def generate_offline_episodes(env, n_episodes=400, epsilon=0.20, seed=0):
episodes = []
for i in range(n_episodes):
obs, _ = env.reset(seed=int(seed + i))
obs_list = []
act_list = []
rew_list = []
done_list = []
done = False
while not done:
a = safe_behavior_policy(obs, env, epsilon=epsilon)
nxt, r, terminated, truncated, _ = env.step(a)
done = bool(terminated or truncated)
obs_list.append(np.array(obs, dtype=np.float32))
act_list.append(np.array([a], dtype=np.int64))
rew_list.append(np.array([r], dtype=np.float32))
done_list.append(np.array([1.0 if done else 0.0], dtype=np.float32))
obs = nxt
episodes.append(
{
“observations”: np.stack(obs_list, axis=0),
“actions”: np.stack(act_list, axis=0),
“rewards”: np.stack(rew_list, axis=0),
“terminals”: np.stack(done_list, axis=0),
}
)
return episodes
def build_mdpdataset(episodes):
obs = np.concatenate([ep[“observations”] for ep in episodes], axis=0).astype(np.float32)
acts = np.concatenate([ep[“actions”] for ep in episodes], axis=0).astype(np.int64)
rews = np.concatenate([ep[“rewards”] for ep in episodes], axis=0).astype(np.float32)
terms = np.concatenate([ep[“terminals”] for ep in episodes], axis=0).astype(np.float32)
if hasattr(d3rlpy, “dataset”) and hasattr(d3rlpy.dataset, “MDPDataset”):
return d3rlpy.dataset.MDPDataset(observations=obs, actions=acts, rewards=rews, terminals=terms)
raise RuntimeError(“d3rlpy.dataset.MDPDataset not found. Upgrade d3rlpy.”)
We design a constrained behavior policy that generates offline data without risky exploration. We roll out this policy to collect trajectories and structure them into episodes. We then convert these episodes into a format compatible with d3rlpy’s offline learning APIs. Check out the FULL CODES here.
if hasattr(dataset, “episodes”) and dataset.episodes is not None:
return dataset.episodes
if hasattr(dataset, “get_episodes”):
return dataset.get_episodes()
raise AttributeError(“Could not find episodes in dataset (d3rlpy version mismatch).”)
def _iter_all_observations(dataset):
for ep in _get_episodes_from_dataset(dataset):
obs = getattr(ep, “observations”, None)
if obs is None:
continue
for o in obs:
yield o
def _iter_all_transitions(dataset):
for ep in _get_episodes_from_dataset(dataset):
obs = getattr(ep, “observations”, None)
acts = getattr(ep, “actions”, None)
rews = getattr(ep, “rewards”, None)
if obs is None or acts is None:
continue
n = min(len(obs), len(acts))
for i in range(n):
o = obs[i]
a = acts[i]
r = rews[i] if rews is not None and i < len(rews) else None
yield o, a, r
def visualize_dataset(dataset, env, title=”Offline Dataset”):
state_visits = np.zeros((env.size, env.size), dtype=np.float32)
for obs in _iter_all_observations(dataset):
x, y = int(obs[0]), int(obs[1])
x = int(np.clip(x, 0, env.size – 1))
y = int(np.clip(y, 0, env.size – 1))
state_visits[y, x] += 1
plt.figure(figsize=(6, 5))
plt.imshow(state_visits, origin=”lower”)
plt.colorbar(label=”Visits”)
plt.scatter([env.start[0]], [env.start[1]], marker=”o”, label=”start”)
plt.scatter([env.goal[0]], [env.goal[1]], marker=”*”, label=”goal”)
if len(env.hazards) > 0:
hz = np.array(list(env.hazards), dtype=np.int32)
plt.scatter(hz[:, 0], hz[:, 1], marker=”x”, label=”hazards”)
plt.title(f”{title} — State visitation”)
plt.xlabel(“x”)
plt.ylabel(“y”)
plt.legend()
plt.show()
rewards = []
for _, _, r in _iter_all_transitions(dataset):
if r is not None:
rewards.append(float(r))
if len(rewards) > 0:
plt.figure(figsize=(6, 4))
plt.hist(rewards, bins=60)
plt.title(f”{title} — Reward distribution”)
plt.xlabel(“reward”)
plt.ylabel(“count”)
plt.show()
We implement dataset utilities that correctly iterate through episodes rather than assuming flat arrays. We visualize state visitation to understand coverage and data bias in the offline dataset. We also analyze reward distributions to inspect the learning signal available to the agent. Check out the FULL CODES here.
returns = []
lengths = []
hazard_hits = 0
goal_hits = 0
for i in range(n_episodes):
obs, _ = env.reset(seed=seed + i)
done = False
total = 0.0
steps = 0
while not done:
a = int(algo.predict(np.asarray(obs, dtype=np.float32)[None, …])[0])
obs, r, terminated, truncated, _ = env.step(a)
total += float(r)
steps += 1
done = bool(terminated or truncated)
if terminated:
x, y = int(obs[0]), int(obs[1])
if (x, y) in env.hazards:
hazard_hits += 1
if (x, y) == env.goal:
goal_hits += 1
returns.append(total)
lengths.append(steps)
return {
“return_mean”: float(np.mean(returns)),
“return_std”: float(np.std(returns)),
“len_mean”: float(np.mean(lengths)),
“hazard_rate”: float(hazard_hits / max(1, n_episodes)),
“goal_rate”: float(goal_hits / max(1, n_episodes)),
“returns”: np.asarray(returns, dtype=np.float32),
}
def action_mismatch_rate_vs_data(dataset, algo, sample_obs=7000, seed=0):
rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
obs_all = []
act_all = []
for o, a, _ in _iter_all_transitions(dataset):
obs_all.append(np.asarray(o, dtype=np.float32))
act_all.append(int(np.asarray(a).reshape(-1)[0]))
if len(obs_all) >= 80_000:
break
obs_all = np.stack(obs_all, axis=0)
act_all = np.asarray(act_all, dtype=np.int64)
idx = rng.choice(len(obs_all), size=min(sample_obs, len(obs_all)), replace=False)
obs_probe = obs_all[idx]
act_probe_data = act_all[idx]
act_probe_pi = algo.predict(obs_probe).astype(np.int64)
mismatch = (act_probe_pi != act_probe_data).astype(np.float32)
return float(mismatch.mean())
def create_discrete_bc(device):
if hasattr(d3rlpy.algos, “DiscreteBCConfig”):
cls = d3rlpy.algos.DiscreteBCConfig
cfg = make_config(
cls,
learning_rate=3e-4,
batch_size=256,
)
return cfg.create(device=device)
if hasattr(d3rlpy.algos, “DiscreteBC”):
return d3rlpy.algos.DiscreteBC()
raise RuntimeError(“DiscreteBC not available in this d3rlpy version.”)
def create_discrete_cql(device, conservative_weight=6.0):
if hasattr(d3rlpy.algos, “DiscreteCQLConfig”):
cls = d3rlpy.algos.DiscreteCQLConfig
cfg = make_config(
cls,
learning_rate=3e-4,
actor_learning_rate=3e-4,
critic_learning_rate=3e-4,
temp_learning_rate=3e-4,
alpha_learning_rate=3e-4,
batch_size=256,
conservative_weight=float(conservative_weight),
n_action_samples=10,
rollout_interval=0,
)
return cfg.create(device=device)
if hasattr(d3rlpy.algos, “DiscreteCQL”):
algo = d3rlpy.algos.DiscreteCQL()
if hasattr(algo, “conservative_weight”):
try:
algo.conservative_weight = float(conservative_weight)
except Exception:
pass
return algo
raise RuntimeError(“DiscreteCQL not available in this d3rlpy version.”)
We define controlled evaluation routines to measure policy performance without uncontrolled exploration. We compute returns and safety metrics, including hazard and goal rates. We also introduce a mismatch diagnostic to quantify how often learned actions deviate from the dataset behavior. Check out the FULL CODES here.
env = SafetyCriticalGridWorld(
size=15,
max_steps=80,
slip_prob=0.05,
seed=SEED,
)
raw_eps = generate_offline_episodes(env, n_episodes=500, epsilon=0.22, seed=SEED)
dataset = build_mdpdataset(raw_eps)
print(“dataset built:”, type(dataset).__name__)
visualize_dataset(dataset, env, title=”Behavior Dataset (Offline)”)
bc = create_discrete_bc(DEVICE)
cql = create_discrete_cql(DEVICE, conservative_weight=6.0)
print(“nTraining Discrete BC (offline)…”)
t0 = time.time()
bc.fit(
dataset,
n_steps=25_000,
n_steps_per_epoch=2_500,
experiment_name=”grid_bc_offline”,
)
print(“BC train sec:”, round(time.time() – t0, 2))
print(“nTraining Discrete CQL (offline)…”)
t0 = time.time()
cql.fit(
dataset,
n_steps=80_000,
n_steps_per_epoch=8_000,
experiment_name=”grid_cql_offline”,
)
print(“CQL train sec:”, round(time.time() – t0, 2))
print(“nControlled online evaluation (small number of rollouts):”)
bc_metrics = rollout_eval(env, bc, n_episodes=30, seed=SEED + 1000)
cql_metrics = rollout_eval(env, cql, n_episodes=30, seed=SEED + 2000)
print(“BC :”, {k: v for k, v in bc_metrics.items() if k != “returns”})
print(“CQL:”, {k: v for k, v in cql_metrics.items() if k != “returns”})
print(“nOOD-ish diagnostic (policy action mismatch vs data action at same states):”)
bc_mismatch = action_mismatch_rate_vs_data(dataset, bc, sample_obs=7000, seed=SEED + 1)
cql_mismatch = action_mismatch_rate_vs_data(dataset, cql, sample_obs=7000, seed=SEED + 2)
print(“BC mismatch rate :”, bc_mismatch)
print(“CQL mismatch rate:”, cql_mismatch)
plt.figure(figsize=(6, 4))
labels = [“BC”, “CQL”]
means = [bc_metrics[“return_mean”], cql_metrics[“return_mean”]]
stds = [bc_metrics[“return_std”], cql_metrics[“return_std”]]
plt.bar(labels, means, yerr=stds)
plt.ylabel(“Return”)
plt.title(“Online Rollout Return (Controlled)”)
plt.show()
plt.figure(figsize=(6, 4))
plt.plot(np.sort(bc_metrics[“returns”]), label=”BC”)
plt.plot(np.sort(cql_metrics[“returns”]), label=”CQL”)
plt.xlabel(“Episode (sorted)”)
plt.ylabel(“Return”)
plt.title(“Return Distribution (Sorted)”)
plt.legend()
plt.show()
out_dir = “/content/offline_rl_artifacts”
os.makedirs(out_dir, exist_ok=True)
bc_path = os.path.join(out_dir, “grid_bc_policy.pt”)
cql_path = os.path.join(out_dir, “grid_cql_policy.pt”)
if hasattr(bc, “save_policy”):
bc.save_policy(bc_path)
print(“Saved BC policy:”, bc_path)
if hasattr(cql, “save_policy”):
cql.save_policy(cql_path)
print(“Saved CQL policy:”, cql_path)
print(“nDone.”)
if __name__ == “__main__”:
main()
We train both Behavior Cloning and Conservative Q-Learning agents purely from offline data. We compare their performance using controlled rollouts and diagnostic metrics. We finalize the workflow by saving trained policies and summarizing safety-aware learning outcomes.
In conclusion, we demonstrated that Conservative Q-Learning yields a more reliable policy than simple imitation when learning from historical data in safety-sensitive environments. By comparing offline training outcomes, controlled online evaluations, and action-distribution mismatches, we illustrated how conservatism helps reduce risky, out-of-distribution behavior. Overall, we presented a complete, reproducible offline RL workflow that we can extend to more complex domains such as robotics, healthcare, or finance without compromising safety.
Check out the FULL CODES here. Also, feel free to follow us on Twitter and don’t forget to join our 100k+ ML SubReddit and Subscribe to our Newsletter. Wait! are you on telegram? now you can join us on telegram as well.
